When we talk of nature we mean heredity. This means the sum total of what parents pass on to their off-springs or children (at the moment of conception). Nurture on the other hand means environmental conditions (anything that can influence individuals starting immediately after conception). From the environment of the womb to the physical and psychological environments a child is growing in matter a lot in life.
When we talk of nature/nurture interaction, we try to find out to what extent a human behaviour is
determined by factors present at birth and to what extent is it molded by experience and learning (environment).
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Needs that are low in the hierarchy must be at least partially satisfied before needs that are higher in the hierarchy become important sources of motivation.![]()
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Self Actualization Needs Self esteem Needs Belonging Needs Safety Needs Physiological Needs of food, water etc.
MORAL DEVELOPMEMNT
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determined by factors present at birth and to what extent is it molded by experience and learning (environment).
Many philosophers and great thinkers studies human behaviour. Some group known as nativists believed that everything about a human being depends on what he inherited from his parents. They attached no importance to environment.
Another group known as empiricists, where the famous philosopher John Locke belonged to, believed that the mind of a human baby is what is called tabula rasa meaning blank tablet. On this blank tablet anything can be written through experience and learning. The empiricists believed that you can make a child what you want him/her to be. They attached no importance to heredity.
On this important issue, psychology has accumulated a great deal of evidence in recent years. They have found that that both the nativists and empiricists are partly right and partly wrong. Human beings have been found to be product of both heredity and environment.
Heredity and environment interact all the time to influence growth and development. While heredity determined the limits of human behaviour, environment determines how far we get towards these limits.
Some specific traits determined by heredity are;
a) Physical features like height, fatness etc.
b) Intelligence
c) Disorders e.g. sickle cell anemia, extra finger etc.
d) Sex related traits e.g. baldness, colour blindness etc.
e) Blood group
f) The rate of development e.g. crawling fast or walking late.
The environmental factors that influence human behaviour are;
a) Pre-natal factors i.e. womb environment
b) Family members – the relationship with people within and outside the home
c) The peer influence
d) Institutions/Schools
e) Physical environment – facilities for learning neatness of surroundings etc.
THE NEEDS OF THE CHILD AND MOTIVATION
Motivation as one of the important concepts in Educational Psychology is the reason or the ‘why’ for an action. It is the reason why people behave the way they do. Motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic. The needs of the child are very important aspects when discussing motivation in Educational Psychology. This is because the needs of the child form the motives for his/her actions.
There are certain needs which an individual cannot avoid as long as he/she is alive e.g. food, air, clothing, water etc. there are other needs which could be termed as luxuries or wishes; life can go on without satisfying such needs e.g. buying a car, to be a Prof. etc.
Needs are important because they constitute a very potent basis for our actions. Behaviours largely depend on an individual’s attempts to satisfy his needs. Sometimes the links are direct, sometimes they are indirect but, there is a connection between the needs, the attempts to satisfy needs and our behaviour.
Many theorists have attempted to classify human motivations and arrange them in the order of priority. Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is one of the most popular classifications.
Abraham Maslow argued that needs are arranged in hierarchy so that as one general need is satisfied, another higher order need will emerge and become operative in life. He grouped human needs into 2 major classes; basic survival or lower order needs to higher order needs.
The hierarchy of needs is presented in the form of a pyramid. At the base or bottom of the pyramid are the physiological or biological needs and at the top are the self-actualization needs.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Physiological Needs
These are the most potent of all the needs. However, for the self-actualized person, it becomes less important. When one is deprived of the physiological needs for a long time, all the other needs fail to appear or they recede to the background. Maslow proposed that an individual who is deprived of the basic needs will be motivated to do something, for example, a child who is deprived of food will be motivated to do something to get food. This principle can be used by the teacher to motivate children to do their work. The teacher can deprived children freedom to play unless they finish their work.
Safety Needs
When the physiological needs are successfully fulfilled, then safety needs become the dominant force in the individual’s life or personality. Safety needs are mainly concerned with maintaining and security. People have the need for houses; they need law and order in their environment. They want to be under the direction of someone they trust.
Small children are physically incapable of controlling their environment and the safety need becomes particularly important for them. It is therefore, essential that the society and government protects children from harmful experience. Children should be reared in an environment free of physical harm. Schools should be sited in a safe environment.
Belongingness and Love Needs
This category of needs emphasizes the basic psychological nature of human beings to identify with the group life. It includes among others the need to make intimate relations with other members of the society, the need to be an acceptable member of an organized group, the need for a family etc. With this need also peer influence becomes stronger.
The Esteem Needs
Esteem needs fall under two categories; the self-esteem needs which include self-respect, self-regard and self-evaluation.
Esteem needs that relate to respect from others which include reputation, status, social success and fame. There are many status symbols in the society which give the feelings of self-esteem; these include possessing such things as house.
There is also the need to feel superior to others. This need is satisfied by say purchasing very expensive clothes and vehicles. A person who fails to satisfy the need to feel superior or to gain self-respect may feel like a misfit or may feel different from others.
Self Actualization Needs
This is the highest need as proposed by Maslow. It means fulfilling one’s individual nature in all its aspect (i.e. being what one can be).
Psychologists have identified the following characteristics as common to self-actualizers:
a) They demonstrate an efficient perception or reality and acceptance.
b) They accept themselves and others.
c) They tend to be problem-centered oriented.
d) They prefer privacy and appear detached.
e) They are autonomous and independent of their environment.
f) They are democratic in nature.
g) They are creative and non conformists.
h) They possess a sense of humour.
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Personality refers to distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviours that characterize the way an individual adapts to the world (J. W. Santrock, 2001). It can also be said to be the integrated and dynamic organization of the physical, mental and special qualities of the individual that manifest itself to other people in social interaction. It is the organization of a wide range of behaviours used to describe the kind of person you are.
One view stresses that there are 5 factors that make up the individual’s personality.
The Big Five Personality Factors
a) Emotional Stability e.g. calm or anxious, secure or insecure, self satisfied or self pitied.
b) Extraversion e.g. sociable or timid, fun loving or somber, affectionate or reserved.
c) Openness e.g. interested in variety or routine, imaginative or practical, independent or conforming.
d) Agreeableness e.g. soft hearted or ruthless, helpful or uncooperative.
e) Conscientiousness e.g. organized or disorganized, careful or careless, discipline or impulsive.
Theories of Personality Development
Personality is your unique, relatively consistent pattern of thinking, feeling and behaving. Many theorists have approached or analyzed the concept of personality according to their belief and understanding.
These theories of personality can be grouped into:
1) The Psychoanalytic personality theory.
2) The Dispositional approach to personality.
3) The Behavioural approach to personality.
4) The Cognitive approach to personality.
5) The Humanistic approach to personality.
1) Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud who championed this theory believed that human behaviour or personality is determined by inhibited aggression and inhibited sexuality. He believed that we are motivated by both life instinct (Eros) and death instinct (Thanatos). He distinguished three structures of personality – the id, the ego and the super ego.
The id obeys the pleasure principles particularly in relation to aggression and sex. It says “now”. The ego obeys the reality principles directing us to express the sex and aggressive impulses in socially acceptable ways. The super ego acts as a moral guide, it believes on the ideal. For sex it says wait till you are married.
Freud had other followers who later broke out from him and modified the theory to suit their believe e.g. Alfred Adler. He described his theory as the theory of Individual Psychology. He believe that personality is formed by the individual’s striving for superiority or excellence, in other words to avoid inferiority complex.
2) The Dispositional Theory to Personality
This group believed that the stability of personality over time and consistency in across situations can be attributed to relatively enduring personal characteristics called types and traits. They concluded that personality differences arise from unborn predispositions to develop particular personality types dominated by simple characteristics. The trait theory instead of describing personality in terms of single types described personality in terms of distinctive combinations of personal dispositions. A trait is a relatively enduring cross-situationally consistent personality characteristic that is inferred from a person’s behaviour.
3) The Cognitive Approach to Personality
This recognizes the influence of thoughts and behaviour. They believe that human beings are scientists who try to make sense of the world by continually testing and revising hypotheses about social reality. George Kelly a leading psychologist in this area called this personal construct e.g. If you hold a construct that strangers are dangerous. He believed that personal construct are bipolar i.e. have 2 extremes e.g. Shy/outgoing, Selfish/generous etc.
4) Humanistic Approach to Personality
When we talk of humanistic theories we remember the popular Abraham Maslow. His theory of personality is likened to Adler’s Social Psychology Theory which views human beings as goal-directed i.e. to achieve superiority. Maslow believed that our behaviours are governed by the struggle to satisfy our needs. We have a need to be self-actualized.
5) Personality and the Concept of Person/Situation Interaction
This concept argued that human behaviour is not a matter of traits or human characteristics alone, but a combination of this and the situation involved. Researchers have found out that the situations we find ourselves in influence our personality a lot.
CONCEPTS AND THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
The primary aim of education is the development of the whole child which implies well-balanced personalities; aesthetically sound, culturally refined, emotionally stable, mentally alert, morally upright, physically strong, socially efficient, spiritually enlightened, vocationally self-sufficient, and internationally liberal.
Development cannot be considered in terms of the mind alone but rather in terms of the individual as a whole in relationship with his experience with others. Thus, development does not consist merely of adding inches to one’s height or improving one’s ability. Instead development is a complex process of integrating many structures and functions. Hence, according to E. B. Hurlock, “Development means a progressive series of change that occur in an orderly predictable pattern as a result of maturation and experience”.
Characteristics and Principles of Development
The following are the general principles of growth and development of individuals:
1. The Principle of Individual Difference. Differences mostly in the intellectual capacity of all human beings and special attitudes most marked among children. This is caused by differences in heredity, endowments and environments.
2. Principle of Continuous Growth and Development Process. The growth and continuous stream of development that proceeds by stages starts from the moment of conception of the individual in the mother’s womb and continues till he reaches his grave.
3. Principle of Uneven Tempo of Growth and Development. Growth and development though is continuous, yet its rate of development is in fits and starts and not uniform at all times.
4. Principle of Uniformity of Development Pattern. Although development has individual differences, yet it follows a definite sequence common to the off-spring of human beings. The outstanding example is that off-springs develop their head first and other parts of the body later on.
5. The Principle of Development from General to Specific Responses. General activity precedes specific activity in all his/her actions. The movements of the child are of general nature in the beginning but later on they become specific.
6. Principle of Interrelation. It has been observed that the growth and development in various aspects like physical, mental, social etc. are interrelated and interdependent. Growth and development of the child in one aspect leads to development in other aspects as well.
7. Principle of Developmental Direction. There are two important principles of development: (a) Cephalo-cadal, and (b) Proximo-distal.
Cephalo-cadal development means that it has a longitudinal axis, i.e., that human development is from head to foot. This implies that control of the body as well as improvement in the structure itself, develops first in the head and progresses later to parts further from the head. Another example of this aspect of development is that a child can lift his head by his neck before he can do so by lifting his chest.
The proximal-distal tendency means that child develops from the center of the body, i.e., the spinal cord to the periphery of the body, i.e., fingers. In the beginning, the child is able to control his large fundamental muscles and smaller muscles later on. The outstanding example is that the control over fingers comes after control over the arm and the hand.
8. Principle of Integration. This implies that the development of the child is both from general to specific and specific to general.
9. Principle of Predictability of Development. We know that every child develops in his own way and develops nearly constantly. It is with this presumption that we can also predict his future range of development.
10. Principle of Spiral and Non-linear Development. This principle implies that the development of the child is not in a straight line (linear) but it is in the form of a cork-screw (spiral). He advances in his development in one period but takes rest in the following period. This enables him to consolidate his development.
11. The Principle of Struggle. While the child is developing up towards maturity there are conflicting impulses and demands. The child struggles against these in his striving for maturity.
12. The principle of Indigenous Motivation. As the child matures in his capacities of doing, thinking and feeling, he has an impulse to them to use and he does it wholeheartedly. This has been described by Jersild as “Indigenous Motivation”.
13. The Principle of Anticipation. The child in his /her process of development also uses his capacity of self-repair. He modifies his behaviour and even habits keeping in view what he is going ‘to become’ in future. Thus, he consciously anticipates his future direction of development.
14. The Principle of Interaction of Heredity and Environment. The development of the child is a product of both. This is true at all times and stages of his development.
Educational Implications of the Principles of Development
Knowledge of principles of growth and development will enlighten the parents and teachers on the potentialities of their children. They should, therefore, provide suitable opportunities for the maximum development of their children. For planning and implementing suitable programmes for the all-round development of children, following guidelines may be taken into consideration:
1. Need for paying attention to individual differences of the learners.
2. Need for developing motivation.
3. Need for a pragmatic outlook.
4. Need for correlation.
5. Influence of heredity and environment.
6. Emphasis on doing.
7. Creativity aspect.
8. Individual attention.
9. Different modes of teaching-learning.
10. Recognition aspect.
11. Satisfaction of curiosity.
12. Reasonable repetition.
13. Need-satisfaction at each stage.
14. Observation.
15. Clarity.
16. Healthy environment.
17. Consistency and firmness.
18. Human relations.
Characteristics of each Stage of Human Growth and Development and Educational Implications
Strictly speaking, there is no sharp line of demarcation between the duration of one stage of growth and development and another stage. Nevertheless, each stage has certain specific characteristics which must be kept in view while teaching or bringing up children.
1. Infancy (from Birth to 2 years)
Characteristics: the period is marked by rapid physical growth.
Importance: Modern researches have established that the period of infancy is the foundation on which the future development of the child depends.
Educational Implications
a. The environment in the family should be of affection and love. The child should have the feeling that everybody in the family loves him.
b. Freedom should be given to the child in his movements.
2. Early Childhood (from 2 to 6 years)
Characteristics: this is the most important and impressionistic period of child’s life. He learns his first lesson of citizenship in the home and the school. He develops the instinct of curiosity. He loves make-believe plays.
Educational Implications
This period of a child’s life is of great educational significance. The following points should be kept in view both by parents and teachers while planning the education of the child at this stage.
a. Provision of healthy environment.
b. Rational treatment.
c. Satisfaction of curiosity.
d. Learning by doing.
e. Dynamic methods of teaching.
Education may be imparted to children with the use of the Montessori Method and the Kindergarten Method which are based on sound psychological principles required for this stage.
These methods provide opportunities for the child to develop his five senses as well.
Play-way spirit should permeate all learning activities.
3. Later Childhood (from 6 to 12 years)
Characteristics: bodily proportions change. Generally boys are considered superior in games requiring physical strength while girls are considered superior to boys on the use of fine muscles and in acquiring skills like drawing, painting, sewing etc. according to Watson, “A derivative of anger, annoyance becomes more prominent in later childhood. There is rapid intellectual advancement”.
Educational Implications
This stage is known as the formative age of the child. He develops his basic outlook, values and ideas. Parents, teachers and social workers have an important role to play.
The school authorities have a special responsibility towards the development of the child.
Following points should be kept in view while dealing with children:
a. Child’s individuality should be respected.
b. It should be kept in mind that each child is unique.
c. Co-curricular activities should be organized.
d. Group competitions may be arranged.
e. Games should be regularly organized.
f. Creative talent should be developed.
4. Adolescence (from 13 to 18 years)
Chief Characteristics
(i) There is an outburst of various aspects of development.
(ii) It is the period of opposite pattern.
(iii) It is the period of preparation for living well in the society.
(iv) The period is marked by far-reaching sex changes.
Educational Implications
a. Compulsory physical exercises and games.
b. Monthly health check-up.
c. Provision of good library.
d. Organization of clubs.
e. Guidance services.
f. Rational approach by the teacher.
g. Meeting fears of inadequacy.
h. No discrimination.
i. Excursion and educational tours.
j. Sex education.
Significance of the Knowledge of the Growth and Development Process to the Teacher
Knowledge of development patterns at each stage is essential for psychological, practical and scientific reasons.
a. Proper acquaintance with the pattern of human development would enable the teacher to know to a considerable extent at what age what behavioural changes occur and when these patterns are usually replaced by more mature patterns. This is important as too much is expected from students and if they do not show such result, they develop a feeling of inadequacy.
b. Knowledge of development pattern enables the teachers to adjust the teaching-learning process according to the needs and interests of the students.
c. The teachers come to know when students need special guidance. Deviation from normal behaviour becomes a cause of anxiety for the teachers.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Physical development refers to a process which brings about bodily and physiological changes – internal as well as external – in an organism from the conception till his death. Generally, these changes take place in the following dimensions:
(i) Gross Physical Structure or Physique: It involves changes in height, weight, body proportions and general physical appearance.
(ii) Internal Organs: It involves changes in the functioning of glands, nervous systems and other body systems – circulatory, respiratory, digestive, muscular, lymphatic and reproductive.
General Pattern of Physical Development
Although there are wide individual differences among children, yet physical growth and development seems to follow to some extent a general pattern. This general pattern of development and growth may be summarized as under.
1. Changes in height and weight.
2. Changes in body proportion.
3. Bones.
4. Teeth.
5. Nervous system.
6. Muscular system.
7. Circulatory and respiratory systems.
8. Lymphatic system.
9. Digestive system.
10. Reproductive system.
Growth and Development Rate
From birth to two years growth rate is rapid. This is followed by a period of slow growth up to the time of puberty or sexual maturity which usually takes place between the eighth and eleven years. Onwards till fifteen years or sixteen years, rate of growth is rapid and it is followed by a period of fairly abrupt tapering of the growth up to the time of maturity.
(i) The ‘body size’ category which includes the skeleton, muscles and internal organs shows more rapid growth during the infancy – early childhood period, and the adolescent period than during middle childhood.
(ii) The “lymphatic system’ (thymus, lymph nodes, and intestinal lymphoid mass) reaches an adult level by seven years of age and is even larger during pre-adolescence before it declines.
(iii)Similarly, the ‘neural system’ (head, brain, and spinal cord) is almost fully developed by the age of six. In contrast, the ‘reproductive organs’ grow very slowly until adolescence at which point they undergo rapid growth.
Common Causes of Delayed Motor and Physical Development
1. Poor physical conditions caused by illness, malnutrition, etc.
2. Lack of opportunities to develop manual skills.
3. Nagging, scolding and ridiculing of the child by parents and teachers when he does not succeed in an activity.
Factors Affecting the Pattern of Physical Growth and Development
1. The traits and characteristics inherited at the time of conception.
2. The physical as well as mental health of the mother during pregnancy.
3. Nutrition received by the embryo within the womb of the mother.
4. Conditions and care at the time of delivery.
5. Normal or abnormal delivery.
6. Single birth or multiple births.
7. Care of the baby and its mother.
8. Presence of absence of physical defects.
9. Presence of absence of illness and disease.
10. Proper or improper medical care.
11. Nutrition received by the child after birth.
12. The living conditions – physical, social and cultural.
13. The opportunities for recreation, self-expression, play and exercise.
14. Adequate or inadequate rest and sleep.
15. Emotional and social adjustment of the child.
Educational Implications of the Physical Development Pattern of the Children for the Teacher
Knowledge of the process of physical development of the children would serve the teacher in the following ways:
1. The teacher comes to know about the specific needs of children. Consequently he can plan his programmes and help them in their emotional and social adjustments also.
2. Physical welfare of the children is an integral part of the development of the whole child. It is, therefore, very important for the teacher to know the details in this regard.
3. Physical growth and development exercise a great influence on the development of other aspects like intellectual and social development, etc.
4. Knowledge of the pattern of physical growth and development helps the teacher to arrange school programmes like co-curricular activities.
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Human social development pattern implies the qualities which bring about desirable changes in the social behaviour of the human beings. It is also referred to as socialization of the human being.It means the development of an individual in such a way that he becomes an efficient and useful member of the society to which he belongs. He conforms to the culture of the society of which he is a member.
Accordingly, Social Development is a process by which the individual is adapted to his social environment (by attaining social conformity), and becomes a recognized, cooperating and efficient member of it. It is also the process by which a person acquires the necessary knowledge, skills and disposition that make him an acceptable member of his own group.
Characteristics of Social Development Pattern
1. Social development begins with the infant’s first contact with other people.
2. Social development continues throughout life.
3. Social development is the net result of the child’s constant interaction with his social environment.
4. Social development helps in learning and acquiring social qualities of character.
5. Social development enables the child to adjust himself to his social environment and to maintain social relationships.
Social Development Pattern or behaviour of the Child at Different Stages
a. Pre-School Child
The child at this stage is ready to expand his social contacts. By the age of two years, he can obey certain commands given to him. He calls attention of other persons to objects he feels interested in. He is more or less self-centred. The pre-school child is active. A pre-school child has usually one or two friends. He plays with them only for short intervals. Race, caste, colour or sex or social and economic status have no effect in the selection of friends at this stage. Nursery school experiences contribute in acquiring acceptable social habits.
b. Primary School Child (6 to 10 years)
By the time a child enters school, he wants to have many friends. At this stage he is not satisfied just by the company of his parents. He is interested in the play activities of his group, of the same age and sex. However, quarrels are also common among friends. Boys of this stage tend to be more aggressive. Girls more frequently engage in bickering. Bullying and teasing are more common. Children are interested in group activities and team work. Team games become more interesting than individual work. Social behaviour of the child is greatly influenced by the social environment in which he lives.
c. Middle School Stage (10 to 12 years)
1. The period is marked by a greater degree of social awareness.
2. There is a great expansion of child’s social world.
3. A child tries to be independent of his parents and other elders.
4. A child becomes an active member of a ‘peer group’.
5. There is a sort of segregation among boys and girls of the same age.
6. The child enters the peak of ‘gang age’. There is increasing loyalty towards his own gang and conflict with other gangs. The gang life develops many good as well as bad social qualities in the child.
d. Adolescence
Following are the important characteristics of social development during adolescence:
1. Adolescence is marked with too much sex consciousness resulting in sexual social relationships.
2. During adolescence loyalty becomes very much pronounced and adolescents are in mood to sacrifice their selfish interests for the greater cause of the group, society and nation.
3. Adolescence stage is often marked with increased friendly relationships.
4. Emotional behaviour of the adolescence dominates his social characteristics and qualities.
5. There is too much diversity in the adolescents regarding their social interests.
To sum up, the adolescence is a period of maximum social awareness, increasing and intimate social relationships.
Factors Affecting the Social Development of the Child
1. Influence of Culture.
2. The Family.
3. Peer Groups.
4. School.
5. Community and Neighbourhood.
6. Mass Media.
7. Bodily Structure and Health.
8. Intelligence.
9. Emotional Development.
10. Physical Health of the Individual
Hindrances in the Social Development of the Child
1. Social evils like untouchability and caste prejudices, etc.
2. Co-education according to conservative view.
3. Language barriers.
4. Miscellaneous factors like income, occupation and religion of the family.
Role of the School in the Social Development of the Child
The role of the school has considerably changed in the rapidly changing civilizations. The traditional role of imparting the basic skills of the three R’s is now no longer considered to be adequate to meet the present challenge. The present day school has also to perform some of the functions of the family. It must develop certain desirable moral attitudes and good social habits among students. It is through co-curricular and extra-curricular activities that the task of socialization can be achieved more successfully. The number of first generation learners in schools and colleges is swelling up. They come from varied backgrounds. Some of them come from deprived homes. It is only the sympathetic understanding and sincere desire of the teacher to act positively in an unprejudicial manner that can help in these situations.
Class in the Process of Social Development
Class provides innumerable opportunities to the children to move and mix with students belonging to different strata of society. This is the beginning of the socialization of the child for his future life. Here children get many chances to mix without any distinction of caste, colour, or creed. The children who are selfish or self-centered learn to adjust their behaviour in terms of class norms. The teachers are expected to be vigilant to ensure that the students do not think in terms of untouchability, caste distinctions and other prejudices.
EMOTIONAL/TEMPERAMENTAL DEVELOPMENT
Temperament is a person’s behavioural style and characteristic ways of responding to situations or events e.g. while some people are warm and friendly others are shy, withdrawn or easily irritated. Temperament can also be said to be how one reacts at an emotional level to the varying situations he encounters. In temperamental development heredity and environment play significant roles. The heredity aspects are controlled by the ductless glands e.g. thyroid, adrenal, pituitary and sex glands. These glands secrete chemical substances called hormones into the blood stream. These hormones exercise important influence on the physical growth and temperament of an individual.
In considering the development of temperament from environmental perspective we will agree that temperament can be a product of social experiences. If a child stays all his/her childhood with a noisy man or an extrovert, the child tends to be behaves like him.
Scientists who study temperament seek to find the best way to classify it. The most accepted classification was proposed by Alexander Chess and Stella Thomas in 1977. They believed that there are 3 clusters of temperament. Namely:
a) An easy child: A child who is generally in positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines and easily adapts to new experiences.
b) A difficult child: A child who tends to react negatively, has aggressive tendencies, lacks self-control and is slow to accept new experiences.
c) A slow-to-warm-up child: A child who has low activity level, is somewhat negative, shows low adaptability.
This concerns rules and conventions about just interactions between people. A lot of controversies exist in the meaning of the term ‘moral’. The role of the school, family and other agencies in moral development of the child is still under context. But, the truth remains that all these contribute in one way or the other in moral development.
Moral development is a complex mixture of
Ø Cognition (thinking about what to do or what has been done.
Ø Emotion (feelings about what has been done or yet to be done. Do you feel guilty or sorry for bad behaviour?
Ø Behaviour (the act itself, what is actively done) how do you behave.
Many Psychologists and scientists who have worked on studied Moral development in children believe that it has patterns.
Patterns of Moral Growth
ü The Initial stage(Infancy: 0 – 2yrs). The child begins to learn right or wrong from his/her parents. At this stage modelling is very important. Parents should therefore teach by example.
ü The Early Childhood stage (2 – 6yrs). The children are developing their cognitive maturity. They have the ability to decide what is right or wrong. They now interact with variety of people e.g. teachers, spiritual advisers etc.
ü The Later Childhood (6 – 12yrs). Children are interacting more with siblings, peers, teachers etc. they now learn about rules and regulations which are not by their parents. They learn that rules are meant for keeping people in check and failure may attract punishment.
ü The Adolescent stage (13 and above). Children learn to tame their impulsive actions that clash with the rules and regulations of their society. they have developed their cognition to good extent. They know that laws are made by man and can also be changed. They value freedom more than any law. Parents and teachers should be more firm in handling children at this stage. Give children just judgement according to the law.
Theories of Moral Development
Piaget’s Theory
Piaget’s theory of moral development emphasized much in how students think about moral issues. He observed and interviewed children aged 4 – 12yrs. He watched them play marbles seeking to learn how they used and though about the game’s rules. He also asked them about ethical rules, asking about theft, lies, punishment and justice. From this study he found that moral development was in stages i.e. according to stages of development.
Stage I – Heteronomous Morality (4 – 7yrs)
At this stage justice and rules are seen as unchangeable, removed from the control of people. Every misbehavior or breaking of rule must receive punishment morality at this stage is mainly based on the fear of punishment.
Stage II – Autonomous Morality (10yrs and Above)
At this stage children learn that rules and laws are created by people. In judging an action the actor’s intentions and consequences of the action are considered. They have learnt that rules are made by man and he can also change it.
Kohlberg’s Theory
Lawrence Kohlberg like Piaget stressed that moral development primarily involves moral reasoning and unfolds in stages. He studied children, adolescents and adults by presenting them with series of dilemma e.g. Mr. Heinz story. Mr. Heinz’s wife was sick with cancer and was almost dying, there was a drug that can treat the cancer in a chemist but the prize was so much. Mr. Heinz pleaded with the chemist to reduce money or give him on credit which he will pay later but the man refused. Mr. Heinz broke into the store at night and stole the drug to treat his wife. After this story Kohlberg now asked ‘Was Mr. Heinz right to steal the drug? Should a good husband steal? Was the chemist right to insist on the high prize for the drug?
From the reactions and answers got Kohlberg arrived at 3 levels of moral development that has 2 stages each making 6 stages.
Level 1 – Pre-conventional Level (No Internalization)
The two stage of the level stressed on punishment and interest as reason for morality. Children obey for fear of punishment or because of reward or what they will gain. They obey rules that are rewarding.
Level 2 – Conventional Level (Intermediate Internalization)
The 2 stages of the level stressed on values, trust, caring and understanding. Children adopt the moral standards of people around them e.g. parents. They try to please their parents by doing what will make their parents see them as ‘good boys’ or ‘good girls’.
Level 3 – Post Conventional Level (Full Internalization)
The two stages of this level stresses on community rights versus individual rights, universal ethical principles. They learn that laws and rules are relative so it can change from one person to another. They know that laws can be changed. They see that judgement as based on universal human rights. When there is a dilemma between law and their conscience they tend to follow their conscience.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Cognition has been defined as a general term covering all aspects of thinking-perception, memory, concept formation and reasoning. It is a process of knowing. We receive raw sensory information and transformation and transform, elaborate, store, recover and use this information when we needed. Mental activity allows us to make something out of our perception. We do so by relating some happenings to other events or objects in our experience. We employ information from our environment and our memories to take decisions about what we say or do.
Since such decisions are based on information available to us and our ability to process the information intelligently we view them as rational. It is this capacity that allows us to intervene in the course of events with conscious deliberation.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was the most famous psychologist who worked on cognitive. His work on cognitive development has helped teachers match curriculum to the ability and age of children. Piaget believed that cognitive development occurs in 4 stages, each of which builds on the previous one. The age at which children reach these stages may vary but, the sequence never varies. These stages are:
a) Sensori motor stage (0 – 2yrs)
b) Pre-operational stage (2 – 7yrs)
c) Concrete operational stage (7 – 11yrs)
d) Formal operational stage (11 – 15yrs)
Sensori Motor Stage (0 – 2yrs)
At this stage infants’ and toddlers’ cognitive development comes mainly through the use of their bodies and their senses as they explore the environment. They use the five senses – sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste. The child follows the mother about with his/her eyes, everything he grasps goes to the mouth, hears the voice of the mother and turns to that direction. Has the sucking reflex etc.
The second characteristic of infants at this stage is that they are “egocentric” or self centered. They don’t consider other people’s view point until you accept or satisfy theirs.
The third characteristic is that children at this stage don’t have a sense of object permanence. Once you remove an object from their sight, the object to them fails to exist and they forget about it.
The educational implication of this stage is that parents and day-care workers should take care of the environment and furnish it with toys of varied shapes and sizes for the children to play with. Not necessary expensive toys.
Pre-Operational Stage (2 – 7yrs)
This stage was further sub-divided into 2; the preoperational phase and the intuitive phase.
The Preoperational Phase(2 – 4yrs). At this phase the child is egocentric, unable to take viewpoint of other people. The child also classifies by single salient features: if A is like B in one respect, then A must be like B in other respects.
The Intuitive Phase (4 – 7yrs). At this phase the child is now able to think in terms of classes, to see relationships, to handle number concepts, but is “intuitive” because he may be unaware of his classification. Gradual development of conservation in this order: mass (age 5), weight (age 6), and volume (age 7). According to Kooistra (1963) these ages are for 50 percent passing.
Concrete Operational Stage (7 – 11yrs)
At this stage the child is able now to use logical operations such as reversibility (in arithmetic), classification (organizing objects into hierarchies of classes), and seriation(organizing objects into ordered series, such as increasing size).
Formal Operational Stage (11 – 15yrs)
At this stage the child is in his final steps toward abstract thinking and conceptualization. He is also capable of hypothesis-testing.
MEMORY/INFORMATION PROCESSING
Memory is the power we have to store our experiences and to bring them up into the field of our consciousness some time when needed.
Memory involves learning, retention, recall and recognition. Many people use memory and remembering interchangeably but they are not exactly the same. While memory is like a cabinet with data stored, classified and cross-filed for future references, remembering depends on how the brain codes and decodes its inputs.
Models of Memory/Information Processing
The models of memory explain how the memory works. Information or environmental input is picked by the senses and through the nervous system it gets to the brain where it is interpreted. This can last for less than one second; it is referred to as Sensory Stage. Some of this information disappears because they are not too important while others are further processed and moved to the Short Term Memory (STM ) which can last for 20 seconds or more. About 5-7 information can be in the short term memory (STM ) at the same time. With rehearsal and elaboration the information is further processed and transferred into the Long Term Memory(LTM) where it can last as long as possible. When this information is needed in the future it will be decoded and returned to the short term memory (STM ) where it will be made use of. This is why the STM is also called the working memory, since much information coming in are used there without getting to the LTM and also those in the LTM are returned to STM in order to be used.
DISCOVERY LEARNING
Discovery learning is the kind of learning in which students or pupils actively construct their own understanding of a situation or solution to a problem.
In studying discovery learning, the work of Jerome Bruner and his associates stand out. Bruner et al believed that learners are active problem solvers rather than passive reactors to a stimulus. The active construction of solution to problems implies that students turn to their cultural environment for clues to aid them in their task. Bruner’s work and that of Piaget in cognitive psychology led to the idea of cognitive constructivism which holds that people actively construct their own knowledge and that reality is determined by the experiences of the individual rather than the objective truth distinct from the individual.
Discovery learning is in contrast to direct instruction approach whereby the teacher directly explains information to the students. In discovery learning the students have to figure out points for themselves. Discovery learning is a learner-centered-approach learning.
How to Promote Discovery Learning in Students
1. Provide the students with stimulating activities that activate their natural curiosity.
2. Make the environment conducive for the students by providing the essential materials.
3. Encourage the students to take initiativein the class particularly during practical lessons.
4. Apply good motivational strategies e.g. verbal encouragement.
Advantages of Discovery Learning
1. Knowledge gain is hardly forgotten.
2. Students feel happy and proud to solve their problems by themselves.
3. It reduces the teacher’s workload.
4. It encourages competition among students.
Disadvantages
1. It is time consuming.
2. It is expensive.
3. It makes some teachers lazy.
4. Competition if not well checked can lead to rivalry.
Discovery Learning in the Classroom
The fact that each of the students constructs his/her knowledge has serious implications to teaching and learning situations. The approach used for discovery learning is different from that used in the traditional teaching setting. In discovery learning the teacher acts as a facilitator of knowledge or a resource person whose purpose is to structure the learning environment to help students come up with his/her understanding of the information. In this method the teacher cannot prepare a single lecture note for all the students or use the same learning exercises for the entire class but he responds to the individual needs of the students. The teacher himself is often like a fellow student since he is also exploring and learning along with the students, he also faces problems and challenges which he has no ready answer. The students play much more active and self-directive role, taking on much of the responsibility for their own learning and making choices as to how and sometimes what to learn. The assessment of the students is also different because it takes a less formal nature; teachers assess the products, projects or presentations rather than results from tests.
The following steps will help the teacher in using discovery learning:
a) Pose problems of relevance to the students.
b) Structure the learning around primary concepts.
c) Seek and value the students’ viewpoints.
d) Adapt curriculum to address students’ current understanding.
e) Assess students learning in the context of teaching.
PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem solving involves finding an appropriate way to attain a goal. It involves thinking out solutions to a problem. Problems are tasks seeking for solution. Problem solving therefore implies devising solutions to tasks. Many people avoid problems but they help you improve your thinking ability by correcting the mistakes you made in solving one problem, it helps you do better next time.
The following are four steps involved in problem solving according to Santrock (2001).
a) Find and frame the problem.
b) Develop good problem solving strategies e.g. Subgoaling, Algorithms, Heuristics and means-end analysis.
c) Evaluate solutions.
d) Rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time.
DUPE Model – is an acronym for a problem solving model which means
a. Determine what the problem is
b. Understand the nature of the problem
c. Plan for its solution
d. Evaluate your plan
Obstacles to Problem Solving
1. Fixation.
2. Confirmation Bias.
3. Lack of motivation and persistence.
Characteristics of Good Problem Solvers
i. Good problems solvers have a positive attitude towards problems.
ii. They are concern with accuracy.
iii. They learn to break problems into manageable units and then integrate the units into manageable whole to get a solution.
iv. They learn not to jump at answers or guess.
Problem solving involves metacognition i.e. the ability to think about thinking (you have an idea but you want to know more and make out better things from what you already know). People differ in their ability and rate of solving problems.
E.g. of problems (Let the students try these problems).
1. There are three separate equal sized boxes, and inside each box there are two separate small boxes, and inside each of the small boxes there are four even smaller boxes, how many boxes are there altogether?
2. Two motorcyclists are 100 miles apart. At exactly the same moment they begin to drive towards each other for a meeting. Just as they leave a bird flies from the front of the 1st cyclist to the front of the 2nd and from the front of the 2nd to the front of the 1st. he continued in this manner until they met. The cyclists both travelled at the rate of 50 km per hour while the bird maintained a speed of 75 Km per hour. How many Kilometers would the bird have flown when they met?
CREATIVITY
Creativity is the ability to think about something in a novel and unusual easy and come up with unique solutions to problems. Creativity is much more likened to divergent thinking, divergent thinking generates many answers to a single problem e.g. what can we make out of a mudu of Soya beans? Psychologists have considered creativity synonymous with inventiveness, originality, imagination, divergent thinking etc. some people think that creativity is in the general domain of intellectual ability while others see creativity as highly specific.
Characteristics of Creative Children or People
1. Creative people learn the strategies needed to solve the problems they inevitably encounter.
2. Creative don’t quit when the going gets tough, they persevere.
3. Creative people are sensitive to problems.
4. Creative people are more fluent than most other people i.e. they generate a number of idea which is called “ideational Fluency”.
5. Creative people demonstrate considerable flexibility of mind.
6. Creative people reorganize the elements.
Strategies to Promote Creativity in Children
1. Have the children engage in brainstorming i.e. come up with creative ideas.
2. Provide environment that stimulates creativity.
3. Don’t over control, allow the children to solve their problems by themselves this will lead to originality.
4. Encourage internal motivation.
5. Introduce children to creative people.
6. Foster flexible and playful thinking.
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